Refer to this line of the third paragraph – “That showed the researchers that cuttlefish wouldn’t reject the prawns if it was the only food available.” Thus It’s not about survival. Other options are explicitly mentioned in the passage.
Cuttlefish are full of personality, as behavioral ecologist Alexandra Schnell found out while researching the cephalopod’s potential to display self-control…….“Self-control is thought to be the cornerstone of intelligence, as it is an important prerequisite for complex decision-making and planning for the future,” says Schnell…..
[Schnell’s] study used a modified version of the “marshmallow test”…… During the original marshmallow test, psychologist Walter Mischel presented children between age four and six with one marshmallow. He told them that if they waited 15 minutes and didn’t eat it, he would give them a second marshmallo. A long-term follow-up study showed that the children who waited for the second marshmallow had more success later in life….. The cuttlefish version of the experiment looked a lot different. The researchers worked with six cuttlefish under nine months old and presented them with seafood instead of sweets. (Preliminary experiments showed that cuttlefishes’ favourite food is live grass shrimp, while raw prawns are so-so and Asian shore crab is nearly unacceptable.) Since the researchers couldn’t explain to the cuttlefish that they would need to wait for their shrimp, they trained them to recognize certain shapes that indicated when a food item would become available. The symbols were pasted on transparent drawers so that the cuttlefish could see the food that was stored inside. One drawer, labeled with a circle to mean “immediate,” held raw king prawn. Another drawer, labeled with a triangle to mean “delayed,” held live grass shrimp. During a control experiment, square labels meant “never.”
“If their self-control is flexible and I hadn’t just trained them to wait in any context, you would expect the cuttlefish to take the immediate reward [in the control], even if it’s their second preference,” says Schnell . . .and that’s what they did. That showed the researchers that cuttlefish wouldn’t reject the prawns if it was the only food available. In the experimental trials, the cuttlefish didn’t jump on the prawns if the live grass shrimp were labeled with a triangle—many waited for the shrimp drawer to open up. Each time the cuttlefish showed it could wait, the researchers tacked another ten seconds on to the next round of waiting before releasing the shrimp. The longest that a cuttlefish waited was 130 seconds.
Schnell [says] that the cuttlefish usually sat at the bottom of the tank and looked at the two food items while they waited, but sometimes, they would turn away from the king prawn “as if to distract themselves from the temptation of the immediate reward.” In past studies, humans, chimpanzees, parrots and dogs also tried to distract themselves while waiting for a reward.
Not every species can use self-control, but most of the animals that can share another trait in common: long, social lives. Cuttlefish, on the other hand, are solitary creatures that don’t form relationships even with mates or young…… “We don’t know if living in a social group is important for complex cognition unless we also show those abilities are lacking in less social species,” says….. comparative psychologist Jennifer Vonk.
Refer to this line of the third paragraph – “That showed the researchers that cuttlefish wouldn’t reject the prawns if it was the only food available.” Thus It’s not about survival. Other options are explicitly mentioned in the passage.
Refer to this line of the third paragraph – “In the experimental trials, the cuttlefish didn’t jump on the prawns if the live grass shrimp were labeled with a triangle— many waited for the shrimp drawer to open up” and this line of the second paragraph Preliminary experiments showed that cuttlefishes’ favourite food is live grass shrimp, while raw prawns are so-so and Asian shore crab is nearly unacceptable.
Option C is correct; refer to this line of the last paragraph – “We don’t know if living in a social group is important for complex cognition unless we also show those abilities are lacking in less social species,” Option A is wrong; refer to this line of the third paragraph – “The longest that a cuttlefish waited was 130 seconds.” As 100 is less than 130.” Option B is wrong; refer to this line of the second paragraph – “Preliminary experiments showed that cuttlefishes’ favorite food is live grass shrimp, while raw prawns are so-so and Asian shore crab is nearly unacceptable.” Option D if true would not complement the findings in any way.
Refer to this line of the last paragraph – “We don’t know if living in a social group is important for complex cognition unless we also show those abilities are lacking in less social species,” Hence Option C cannot be inferred. Options A, B and D can be inferred from Second & third paragraph of the passage.
We cannot travel outside our neighbourhood without passports. We must wear the same plainclothes. We must exchange our houses every ten years. We cannot avoid labour. We all go to bed at the same time…. We have religious freedom, but we cannot deny that the soul dies with the body, since ‘but for the fear of punishment, they would have nothing but contempt for the laws and customs of society’…… In More’s time, for much of the population, given the plenty and security on offer, such restraints would not have seemed overly unreasonable. For modern readers, however, Utopia appears to rely upon relentless transparency, the repression of variety, and the curtailment of privacy. Utopia provides security: but at what price? In both its external and internal relations, indeed, it seems perilously dystopian.
Such a conclusion might be fortified by examining selectively the tradition which follows More on these points. This often portrays societies where….. ‘it would be almost impossible for man to be depraved, or wicked’…….This is achieved both through institutions and mores, which underpin the common life……. The passions are regulated and inequalities of wealth and distinction are minimized. Needs, vanity, and emulation are restrained, often by prizing equality and holding riches in contempt. The desire for public power is curbed. Marriage and sexual intercourse are often controlled: in Tommaso Campanella’s The City of the Sun (1623), the first great literary utopia after More’s, relations are forbidden to men before the age of twenty-one and women before nineteen. Communal child-rearing is normal; for Campanella this commences at age two. Greater simplicity of life, ‘living according to nature’, is often a result: the desire for simplicity and purity are closely related. People become more alike in appearance, opinion, and outlook than they often have been. Unity, order, and homogeneity thus prevail at the cost of individuality and diversity. This model, as J. C. Davis demonstrates, dominated early modern utopianism….And utopian homogeneity remains a familiar theme well into the twentieth century.
Given these considerations, it is not unreasonable to take as our starting point here the hypothesis that utopia and dystopia evidently share more in common than is often supposed. Indeed, they might be twins, the progeny of the same parents. Insofar as this proves to be the case, my linkage of both here will be uncomfortably close for some readers. Yet we should not mistake this argument for the assertion that all utopias are, or tend to produce, dystopias. Those who defend this proposition will find that their association here is not nearly close enough. For we have only to acknowledge the existence of thousands of successful intentional communities in which a cooperative ethos predominates and where harmony without coercion is the rule to set aside such an assertion. Here the individual’s submersion in the group is consensual (though this concept is not unproblematic). It results not in enslavement but voluntary submission to group norms. Harmony is achieved without……harming others.
Refer to this line of the third paragraph – “Indeed, they might be twins, the progeny of the same parents.” Might refers to a probability whereas ‘are’ refers to certainty.
The passage treads from introducing ‘Utopia’ and then harps on that as per popular belief it provides 'security' and leads to 'Homogeneity' and finally refers to 'international community' towards the end.
Refer to this line of the first paragraph –“ In More’s time, for much of the population, given the plenty and security on offer, such restraints would not have seemed overly unreasonable.” This implies that restraints were not unwelcome. As this is an ’Except’ question so first option is ruled out.
Refer to this line of the first paragraph –“ In More’s time, for much of the population, given the plenty and security on offer, such restraints would not have seemed overly unreasonable.” & the lines '. This is achieved both through institutions and mores, which underpin the common life…….
The sleights of hand that conflate consumption with virtue are a central theme in A Thirst for Empire, a sweeping and richly detailed history of tea by the historian Erika Rappaport. How did tea evolve from an obscure “China drink” to a universal beverage imbued with civilizing properties? The answer, in brief, revolves around this conflation, not only by profit-motivated marketers but by a wide variety of interest groups. While abundant historical records have allowed the study of how tea itself moved from east to west, Rappaport is focused on the movement of the idea of tea to suit particular purposes.
Beginning in the 1700s, the temperance movement advocated for tea as a pleasure that cheered but did not inebriate, and industrialists soon borrowed this moral argument in advancing their case for free trade in tea (and hence more open markets for their textiles).Factory owners joined in, compelled by the cause of a sober workforce, while Christian missionaries discovered that tea “would soothe any colonial encounter”. During the Second World War, tea service was presented as a social and patriotic activity that uplifted soldiers and calmed refugees.
But it was tea’s consumer-directed marketing by importers and retailers – and later by brands– that most closely portends current trade debates. An early version of the “farm to table” movement was sparked by anti-Chinese sentiment and concerns over trade deficits, as well as by the reality and threat of adulterated tea containing dirt and hedge clippings. Lipton was soon advertising “from the Garden to Tea Cup” supply chains originating in British India and supervised by “educated Englishmen”. While tea marketing always presented direct consumer benefits (health, energy, relaxation), tea drinkers were also assured that they were participating in a larger noble project that advanced the causes of family, nation and civilization. . . .
Rappaport’s treatment of her subject is refreshingly apolitical. Indeed, it is a virtue that readers will be unable to guess her political orientation: both the miracle of markets and capitalism’s dark underbelly are evident in tea’s complex story, as are the complicated effects of British colonialism. . . . Commodity histories are now themselves commodities: recent works investigate cotton, salt, cod, sugar, chocolate, paper and milk. And morality marketing is now a commodity as well, applied to food, “fair trade” apparel and eco-tourism. Yet tea is, Rappaport makes clear, a world apart – an astonishing success story in which tea marketers not only succeeded in conveying a sense of moral elevation to the consumer but also arguably did advance the cause of civilisation and community.
I have been offered tea at a British garden party, a Bedouin campfire, a Turkish carpet shop and a Japanese chashitsu, to name a few settings. In each case the offering was more an idea – friendship, community, respect – than a drink, and in each case the idea then created a reality. It is not a stretch to say that tea marketers have advanced the particularly noble cause of human dialogue and friendship.
Option A finds help in this line of the second paragraph – “Beginning in the 1700s, the temperance movement advocated for tea as a pleasure that cheered but did not inebriate.” Option C finds help in this line of the second paragraph – “industrialists soon borrowed this moral argument in advancing their case for free trade in tea.” Option D finds help in this line of the second paragraph – “Factory owners joined in, compelled by the cause of a sober workforce.”
Refer to the last line of the passage –“It is not a stretch to say that tea marketers have advanced the particularly noble cause of human dialogue and friendship.”
Option D can’t be supported based on the information stated in the passage. Option C is correct, refer to this line of the second paragraph – “During the Second World War, tea service was presented as a social and patriotic activity that uplifted soldiers and calmed refugees.” Option A and B are correct – Refer to these last lines of the passage – “It is not a stretch to say that tea marketers have advanced the particularly noble cause of human dialogue and friendship.”
Refer to this line of the second last paragraph – “And morality marketing is now a commodity as well, applied to food, “fair trade” apparel and eco-tourism.”
For the Maya of the Classic period, who lived in Southern Mexico and Central America between 250 and 900 CE, the category of ‘persons’ was not coincident with human beings, as it is for us. That is, human beings were persons – but other, nonhuman entities could be persons, too. . . . In order to explore the slippage of categories between ‘humans’ and ‘persons’, I examined a very specific category of ancient Maya images, found painted in scenes on ceramic vessels. I sought out instances in which faces (some combination of eyes, nose, and mouth) are shown on inanimate objects…..Consider my iPhone, which needs to be fed with electricity every night, swaddled in a protective bumper, and enjoys communicating with other fellow-phone-beings. Does it have personhood (if at all) because it is connected to me, drawing this resource from me as an owner or source? For the Maya (who did have plenty of other communicating objects, if not smartphones), the answer was no. Nonhuman persons were not tethered to specific humans, and they did not derive their personhood from a connection with a human. …… It’s a profoundly democratising way of understanding the world. Humans are not more important persons – we are just one of many kinds of persons who inhabit this world. . . .
The Maya saw personhood as ‘activated’ by experiencing certain bodily needs and through participation in certain social activities. For example, among the faced objects that I examined, persons are marked by personal requirements (such as hunger, tiredness, physical closeness), and by community obligations (communication, interaction, ritual observance). In the images I examined, we see, for instance, faced objects being cradled in humans’ arms; we also see them speaking to humans. These core elements of personhood are both turned inward, what the body or self of a person requires, and outward, what a community expects of the persons who are a part of it, underlining the reciprocal nature of community membership…..
Personhood was a non binary proposition for the Maya. Entities were able to be persons while also being something else. The faced objects I looked at indicate that they continue to be functional, doing what objects do (a stone implement continues to chop, an incense burner continues to do its smoky work). Furthermore, the Maya visually depicted many objects in ways that indicated the material category to which they belonged – drawings of the stone implement show that a person-tool is still made of stone. One additional complexity: the incense burner (which would have been made of clay, and decorated with spiky appliques representing the sacred ceiba tree found in this region) is categorised as a person – but also as a tree. With these Maya examples, we are challenged to discard the person/nonperson binary that constitutes our basic ontological outlook…… . The porousness of boundaries that we have seen in the Maya world points towards the possibility of living with a certain uncategorisability of the world.
Only option B respects the plants for its needs and accepts it as an independent identity whereas all other options mark the element for its link or usage with humans.
This is a double negative question, thus we need to look for the statement that strengthens or is in line with the main idea conveyed by the passage. Option D is explicitly against the main idea of the passage. Option B gives importance of human linkage to identify/ respect the identity of cats and dogs. Option A also mentions the importance of human linkage. Whereas Option C gives more importance to ‘local medicinal plants’.
The example is neither meant to complicate nor provide an exemption. Rather it’s an attempt to break the non-binary understanding of personhood by bringing in a third category that shares a similar relation. Refer to this line of the last paragraph - "With these Maya examples, we are challenged to discard the person/nonperson binary that constitutes our basic ontological outlook……"
Refer to this line of the first paragraph – “For the Maya (who did have plenty of other communicating objects, if not smartphones), the answer was no.” But if the personhood of the incense burner and the stone chopper was a function of their usefulness to humans. Then the answer would be changed to ‘yes’.
The discussion is regarding the ownership & rights related to the ‘space’. Option 4 though touches upon the rights but it is not specifically linked to the ‘outer space’
Sentence 4 introduces the topic by listing the ‘two poles’. Sentence 3 mentions that ‘fact must lie halfway between’ Sentence 1 elaborates it further. The ‘convergence’ mentioned in sentence 2 makes it the appropriate concluding sentence.
McGurk and MacDonald (1976) reported a powerful multisensory illusion occurring with audio-visual speech. They recorded a voice articulating a consonant ‘ba-ba-ba’ and dubbed it with a face articulating another consonant ‘ga-ga-ga’. Even though the acoustic speech signal was well recognized alone, it was heard as another consonant after dubbing with incongruent visual speech i.e., ‘da-da-da’. The illusion, termed as the McGurk effect, has been replicated many times, and it has sparked an abundance of research. The reason for the great impact is that this is a striking demonstration of multisensory integration, where that auditory and visual information is merged into a unified, integrated percept.
Option A is wrong as it’s not about ‘confusion’. Option B is wrong as instead of multiplication it is about ‘an entirely different message. ’Option C is wrong as it’s not about winning over rather ‘mismatch’
Developing countries are becoming hotbeds of business innovation in much the same way as Japan did from the 1950s onwards. They are reinventing systems of production and distribution, and experimenting with entirely new business models. Why are countries that were until recently associated with cheap hands now becoming leaders in innovation? Driven by a mixture of ambition and fear they are relentlessly climbing up the value chain. Emerging-market champions have not only proved highly competitive in their own backyards, they are also going global themselves.
Options A & D are wrong as they focus on production & distribution & miss on ‘business models’. Option C is wrong as the developing economies are not being forced into something.
The topic of discussion is the ‘predatory journals’ specifically with reference to India but Option 5 moves on to the ‘Global’ aspect.
Sentence 2 is a standalone complete and introductory sentence. ’They’ is sentence 3 refers to Biologists mentioned in ‘2’. Sentence 4 lists the specific aspect and Statement 1 aptly sums up the discussion.
Statement 2 raises a concern. Statement 1 lists a popular response to counter ‘global warming’. Sentence 4 explains the mechanism. ‘It’ in Sentence 3 refers to carbon mentioned in statement 4.
Foreign peacekeepers often exist in a bubble in the poor countries in which they are deployed; they live in posh compounds, drive fancy vehicles, and distance themselves from locals. This may be partially justified as they are outsiders, living in constant fear, performing a job that is emotionally draining. But they are often despised by the locals, and many would like them to leave. A better solution would be bottom-up peace building, which would involve their spending more time working with communities, understanding their grievances and earning their trust, rather than only meeting government officials.
Option A is wrong as it shifts the onus on the ‘environment’ and hampers the need to mix up and listen to the grievance of the locals. Option B is wrong as this has not been stated as the reason for foreign peacekeepers being despised by the locals. Option C is wrong as the passage states that –“their spending more time working with communities, understanding their grievances and earning their trust, rather than only meeting government officials.” Their refers to the foreign peacekeepers and not locals.
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